Shakespeare's "Periods of Work"

Due to our time limitations, my class lecture on this topic was rather brief, being confined to but main points. I here expand the previous information given to the extent that these notes provide 1) a complete list of Shakespeare's writings, appended with (sometimes very!) tentative dates, and 2) comments on the general nature of each period, followed by any particular remarks or examples which seem appropriate.

Overview

(All dates are circa!)

1. Experimentation 1590 - 1595

2. Development of Personal style 1595 - 1600

Romeo and Juliet can be considered Shakespeare's first great work; Julius Caesar his next.

3. Tragedy 1601- 1608

Shakespeare's four greatest works - Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth - are written here.

4. Romance 1608 - 1613

Detailed Descriptions of the Periods

(T = tragedy, H = historical, and C = comedy)

I. EXPERIMENTATION 1590 - 1595

· The Sonnets 1590

· Titus Andronicus 1590 T

· King Henry VI (in three parts) 1590 H

· Richard III 1591 H (forming part 4 of the above)

· The Taming of the Shrew 1592 C

· The Two Gentlemen of Verona 1592 - 93 C

· Venus and Adonis (poem) pub. 1593

· The Rape of Lucrece (poem) pub. 1594

· The Comedy of Errors performed 1594 C

· Love's Labor Lost 1595 C

The order given here is not to be taken as exact, but rather only represents an approximation (e.g., part, or even possibly all, of Henry VI could have been written before Titus Andronicus). The central point to note in the ordering is that the single tragedy (i.e., Titus Andronicus) and historical tetralogy (i.e., Henry VI and Richard III) come before the four comedies, in the middle of which where published (dates of composition uncertain) two poems of classically-derived, tragi-romantic theme. Further, we immediately notice, here at the beginning of his writing career, an amazing productivity: 12 works in five years averages out to one every five months! With very little slowdown, this schedule will continue until Shakespeare's retirement in 1613.

Moving to an examination of the structures and themes of these early works, we will not readily find the qualities for which Shakespeare is later to become so famous (e.g., the tightly woven plot; the complexity of characterization; the striking insights into human nature). Rather, these works, as a group, exhibit 1) an experimentation with, and interest in, structure, and 2) occasional flashes of brilliance in language and insight. Two examples will suffice.

The tragedy Titus Andronicus is, by any reckoning, a bizarre production; many critics have remarked on its "repulsive" characteristics (1), and even its Restoration adapter, Edward Ravenscroft, said, " It seems rather a heap of rubbish than a structure" (2). And yet, against this, stands the character of Aaron, who, undoubtedly has a "Shakespearean" quality, and is given some excellent lines.

At the end of the play, Aaron speaks the following lines:

"Ah, why should wrath be mute and fury dumb?

I am no baby, I, that with base prayers

I should repent the evils I have done;

Ten thousand worse than ever yet I did

Would I perform, if I might have my will.

If one good deed in all my life I did,

I do repent it from my very soul."

Earlier, whilst plotting, he says:

"He that had wit would think that I had none,

To bury so much gold under a tree

And never after to inherit it.

Let him that thinks of me so abjectly

Know that this gold must coin a stratagem,

Which, cunningly effected, will beget

A very excellent piece of villainy.

And so repose, sweet gold, for their unrest."

The Sonnets provide a second example, for, as R. Ellrodt points out, "Shakespeare wrote within a convention, but how much of the convention he left out deserves notice" (3). In brief, though retaining the basic form of the sonnet, Shakespeare's adaptation of it was extensive (a simple comparison with Petrarch will prove this). Here is Sonnet 27.

Weary with toil, I haste me to my bed,

The dear repose for limbs with travel tired,

But then begins a journey in my head

To work my mind, when body's work's expired.

For then my thoughts (from far where I abide)

Intend a zealous pilgrimage to thee,

And keep my drooping eyelids open wide,

Looking on darkness which the blind do see.

Save that my soul's imaginary sight

Presents thy shadow to my sightless view,

Which like a jewel (hung in ghastly night)

Makes black night beauteous, and her old face new. 

Lo thus by day my limbs, by night my mind,

For thee, and for my self, no quiet find.

Finally, here are a few other quotes from these early works.

From "Henry VI (Part One)":

My thoughts are whirled like a potter's wheel;

I know not where I am nor what I do.

From "Richard III":

Thou wast provoked by thy bloody mind,

That never dream'st on aught but butcheries.

From "The Comedy of Errors":

Proceed, Solinus, to procure my fall,

And by the doom of death end woes and all.

II. Development of Personal Style 1595 - 1600

· Romeo and Juliet 1595 T

· Richard II 1595 H

· A Midsummer Night's Dream 1595 - 96 C

· The Merchant of Venice 1596 - 98 C

· Henry IV (Parts one and two) 1597 H

· The Merry Wives of Windsor 1597 C

· Much Ado About Nothing 1598 - 99 C

· Henry V 1599 H

· Julius Caesar 1599 H

· As You Like it 1599 C

· Twelfth Night 1601 C

· King John 1591 - 98 H

Romeo and Juliet, Shakespeare's first great work, marks the beginning of his development into a mature and unique talent in literature. The works of this period are technically and artistically superior to anything written in the previous phase. The structures of the plays are now economical, each part neatly fitting into the next with no wastage, and the language, while striking and beautiful, does not overextend itself into "undergraduate extravagance". More importantly, however, is the Bard's artistic development: it is at this time that the classic Shakespearean character, the hallmark of which is realistic complexity of personality, strides onto stage. The doomed lovers of Romeo and Juliet; the paradoxical Falstaff (in Henry IV and The Merry Wives of Windsor); the opposed, but perhaps equally honorable, Antony and Brutus in Julius Caesar; and Twelfth Night's wise fool Feste, all provide ready examples.

Let us take a moment to look at Brutus. When we read, or, much better, hear performed, Antony's key speech, it is quite easy to be swayed, as the Roman citizens are, by his eloquent rhetoric (note well the beautifully rendered irony of the lines, "For I have neither wit, nor words, nor worth,/Action, nor utterance, nor the power of speech/To stir men's blood. I only speak right on./I tell you that which you yourselves do know." 3.2, 222-225). Despite all this, however, Brutus is, indeed, "an honorable man". Brutus has agreed, reluctantly and with hesitation, to participate in the murder of Caesar not out of any personal hatred of the man (as, actually, the other conspirators have), but because, truly, he fears that Rome's democracy will be lost if Caesar is crowned sole ruler ("… not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more." 3.2, 21.). Whether we agree with this decision or not the point is that we cannot, in any way, simply classify Brutus as an evil, or even well-intentioned-but-stupid, character: Brutus, as indeed Antony, is a complex man in a difficult situation - who deals with that situation as best as he humanly can.

And thus we have the mirror held up to Nature, and the art of Shakespeare therein.

III. Tragedy 1601 - 1608

It is here, in Shakespeare's third period, that his greatest work - Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth - appear; they are all tragedies. In fact, all the works of this period are tragedies.

One is naturally lead to ask what causes, if any, in the writer's life influenced this phase; it being not only his greatest period of work but also, as it were, all of a piece. The simple truth, however, remains: we actually know very little about Shakespeare's life. Of the scant information we have, all that seems relevant are the deaths of his son Hamnet, 1596, his father, 1601, and mother, 1608.

There, may, however, be another route of inquiry. Rather than attempting to pry into the man's private life for an answer to the question "why?", we might, more deeply, ask about his development as an artist. Could it be, that by this time in his life, the Bard was lead to the conclusion that the most accurate reflection of the human condition in the mirror of Art is nothing but tragedy? If this observation be correct, Shakespeare stands midpoint between Aristotle and Schopenhauer

In the time I have it is impossible to give even the briefest of introductions to Shakespeare's four great tragedies; I will, therefore restrict myself to a few general comments about Hamlet.

First, it should be clearly recognized that although Hamlet is (sometimes) technically classed as a "revenge tragedy" (the classic examples being Kyd's The Spanish Tragedy, 1592; Marlowe's The Jew of Malta, pub. 1633; and, least we forget what many would like to forget, Titus Andronicus), in fact, the true theme of the play has nothing to do with revenge: the entire focus of the drama is Hamlet's depth and sensitivity of character in relation to his disillusionment with life. The particular events brought before us (the murder of Hamlet's father; his mother's, and friend's, betrayal of him; poor Ophelia's madness and death; Laertes' dishonorable conduct) all serve only to focus and sharpen Hamlet's growing conviction that life, all life, is " stale, flat, and profitless'. In short, the world is not what young Hamlet thought it was. Or, as Schopenhauer says, "The world is glorious to look at, but dreadful in reality" (4).

Hamlet's realization of this fact, and his struggle to come to grips with it, form the central theme of this drama.

IV Romance 1608 - 1613

· Pericles 1606-08 R

· Cymbeline 1609-10 R

· The Winter's Tale 1610-11 R

· The Tempest 1610-11 R

Shakespeare's last four works are perhaps best described as romances of tragi-comic content. This period is often labeled as one of "restored serenity", in that it contrasts with the previous series of tragedies. Again, however, as we know so little of the poet's life, caution should be used in applying this description to anything beyond the writings themselves.

These four final works (the outstanding piece being The Tempest) are connected in at least two ways. First, the tone of these plays might be described as classical fantasy; in the style, for example, of the ancient Greek tale of Jason's quest for the golden fleece. Second, the conflicts are resolved, not in any realistic manner, but rather by magical and "fantastical" means.

As a group, these plays seem to present life, its problems, and the resolutions of those problems, as all something essentially mysterious, inexplicable. The twin key points, however, or so it seems to me, are 1) that, no, we cannot understand why things happen as they do, but 2) the problems that do arise are indeed resolved in favor of Good and Right.

Finally, if the given interpretation be correct, the beauteous Swan of Avon has flown us, and himself , back to the garden of the Academy, where we walk again with the divine Plato.

References

2. The Oxford Companion to English Literature, edited by Margaret Drabble. Oxford University Press, 1985. Page 986, Titus Andronicus.

3. The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare Studies, edited by Stanley Wells. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2000. Page 35.

4. Schopenhauer, Arthur. The Wisdom of Life and Counsels And Maxims, translated by T. Bailey Saunders. Prometheus Books, 1995. Page 98.